Introduction
The Crimean War is a relatively little known and under-appreciated war, especially so in the United States, which had little part in the war.1 It is relatively obscure compared to the much larger and more relevant, at least to American History, Civil War. The name itself is even a misnomer.
The Crimean War was the first major war between the major European powers since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. It was the first symptom of an arms race which would revolutionize weaponry and warfare and end in two world wars and the insanity of the Cold War. Unfortunately, the technology and weaponry was often several steps ahead of the leadership and tactics in this race.
“The Crimean War, the clash of empires that raged between 1853 to 1856, was at the same time the last of the old wars and the first of the new.” (Fletcher and Ischenko, p. 536)
Background
The expansionist nature of the Russian Empire and the decline of the Ottoman Empire meant that warfare was endemic between the two from the 16th century onward. Possession of the coastline of the Black Sea would give Russia a warm-water port, access to the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, and thus into the Mediterranean. The Ottoman Turks and their vassals, the khans of Crimea managed to maintain control of the Caucasus and the Balkans. Peter I won a foothold on the Black Sea when he captured the fortress of Azov in 1696. Sultan Ahmed III took advantage of Russian involvment in the Northern War of 1700 to 1721 to regain Azov. France, a traditional ally of the Ottomans, was behind the Turkish efforts. A minor war between the Ottomans and Russia in 1736 allowed the Russians to again capture Azov.
Major wars were fought between the Russians and Turks in the years 1768-1774, 1787-1792, 1806-1812, and 1828-1829. The Russians won control of the Crimean Peninsula and much of the northern shore of the Black Sea, and giving Russia considerable territorial gain, as well as navigational access to the Black Sea and the Straits. Most importantly, the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in 1774 conceded to Russia the role of protector of the sultan's Greek Orthodox subjects. This controversial religious interest in the Ottoman Empire was to be a point of contention in later years.
The Crisis
In 1853, Russia, using the pretext of protecting the interests of the Greek Orthodox minority in the Holy Land, tried to force further concessions from the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, feeling confident because of promises of support from England and France, declared war in October 1853. Six months later, in March 1854, England and France both entered the conflict, and the Russo-Turkish War became the Crimean War.
Each of the belligerent countries had their own agendas. Nicholas I, the autocratic ruler of Russia, had aggressive ambitions towards the Straits and wanted to dismember the feeble Ottoman Empire. Napoleon III wanted to upset the European balance of power and saw war with Russia as the way to do it (Rich, pp. 6-8). He also wanted to create a military reputation for himself, as had his more famous, and more capable, uncle. He helped to create the crisis over the Holy Land which was partly the source of the larger dispute between Russia and Turkey.
Britain and Russia were already at odds over the efforts of both to expand their respective empires into Afghanistan. The British diplomats handing the situation became alarmed at threatening statements made by Tsar Nicholas I, and saw war as a way to end the threat posed by Russia permanently (Rich, p. 9-10). Both Britain and France saw the development of the port of Sevastopol as a major threat, and “they feared the Black Sea might one day become a ‘Russian lake’.” (Fletcher and Ischenko, p. 57) The opportunistic Turks saw the dispute between Russia and France as a way to use France and Britain in their intermittent wars against Russia (Rich, pp. 5, 9).
The Major Weapons of the Crimean War
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The Tactics of the Crimean War
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The Major Battles of the Crimean War
Sinope
Alma
Inkerman
Balaclava
Siege of Sebastopol
The Results of the Crimean War
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The Important Lessons, Events, and Developments of the Crimean War
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1 There were a number of individuals who volunteered to fight for Russia during the Crimean War. Others served as doctors, nurses, and medical assistants. Numerous ship captains also hired out to Britain to transport supplies and troops to the Crimean. See John Codman, An American Transport in the Crimean War (New York: Bonnell, Silver & Co., 1896). The E.I. DuPont Company sold gunpowder to both sides during the war, making tremendous profits. Three military observers were commissioned to visit the Europe and the Crimean War theatre to learn the state of the art of war; One of the three observers sent was a young major named George McClellan.
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Crimean War Reading List
The reading list is at the bottom of this page. Click on the link above, click here, or just scroll through the timeline to get there.
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The table below contains various military and diplomatic events related to the Crimean War of 1853-1855. A shorter and somewhat less-cluttered list with mainly battles and only the more important significant diplomatic events included can be accessed by scrolling down to the bottom of this page or by clicking here.
The dates are to the nearest day when possible. Those events dated to the nearest year are less certain, naturally, than those dated to the precise day. Dates in this period are sometimes complicated by the fact that Russia still used the Julian Calendar while the rest of the western world had converted to the Gregorian Calendar. Dates given for any particular event sometimes vary by 10 to 12 days, depending on the source and the period, which causes a bit of confusion.
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| London Convention of 1841 (Straits Convention) |
July 13, 1841 |
England, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed that the Dardanelles and Bosporus be closed to all foreign warships in peacetime. |
| Napoleon III makes himself dictator of France through a coup d'etat |
December 2, 1851 |
On 2 December 1851, Louis Napoleon made himself dictator of France through a coup d'etat, and exactly two years later he himself assumed the imperial title of Napoleon III (Rich, p. 6). |
| Sultan's Firman of 1852 |
February 9, 1852 |
The Sultan in Constantinople grants wide-ranging rights to the Catholics in the Holy Land. This contradicted a simultaneous concession to the Orthodox monks. This dispute evolved into an international affair (Baumgart, p. 12). |
| Napoleon III orders battleship Charlemagne to steam through the Turkish Straits |
July 1852 |
Later that summer, much to Nicholas's fury and to Britain's irritation, Napoleon III ordered the 90-gun steam-powered battleship Charlemagne to sail through the Dardanelles. This was a clear violation of the London Convention of 1841… (Royle, p. 19) |
| Turks grant concessions to the Latin church backed by France |
December 22, 1852 |
Whether intimidated by French pressure or happy to seize the opportunity to play off France against Russia in the Near East, the Turks, in December 1852, conceded everything the French government had demanded (Rich, p. 22). |
| Tsar Nicholas begins planning for war |
January 7, 1853 |
On 7 January 1853 the tsar had laid secret plans for a pre-emptive military strike against Constantinople before France or Britain could intervene, involving a naval expedition to the Bosphorus consisting of 28 warships and 32 transports (Royle, p. 34). |
| Russia begins military plans for operations against Turkey |
January 19, 1853 |
At the height of the crisis over Montenegro, the tsar informed his military advisers in a memo of 19 January 1853 that he expected a rupture with Turkey at any moment; Russia's best course would be a sudden attack on the Ottoman Empire (Rich, p. 27). |
| Menshikov mission arrives in Constantinople |
February 28, 1853 |
Menshikov immediately alienated the turks with his purposely insolent behavior, yet failed to take advantage of their discomfiture. They were able to procrastinate for months, giving them time to gain support from France and Britain (Rich, p. 41). |
| Napoleon III decides to send a French squadron from Toulon to Salamis |
March 19, 1853 |
Napoleon responded Turkish appeals, hoping the British would join this action, and that it would lead to closer Anglo-French cooperation in general. Only one of his ministers supported the idea, but he gave the order anyway (Rich, p. 42). |
| Lord Stratford Canning arrives in Constantinople |
April 4, 1853 |
Stratford's viewed Russia as a menace to the independence of the Ottoman Empire and a threat to the interests of Great Britain in the Near East; any means were justified to halt and if possible turn back the Russian menace (Rich, p. 45). |
| Turks inform Stratford that Russian demands are unacceptable |
April 8, 1853 |
Stratford was telling the Turkish Grand Council that Menshikov's demands were unacceptable and should be rejected, but telling Menshikov that he was working to get the Russian treaty proposal accepted. The Turks continued to temporize (Rich, p. 46). |
| Menshikov requests instructions from Saint Petersburg |
April 10, 1853 |
Menshikov was taken in by Stratford's ploy of negotiating on unimportant issues. He had been negotiating for more than two weeks and had achieved nothing. He then sent to Saint Petersburg to ask whether he should persist in the demands (Rich, p. 41-2). |
| Menshikov again presents Russian demands |
April 19, 1853 |
Before receiving an answer to his request for further instructions from Saint Petersburg, Menshikov again presents Russian demands for a treaty to the Turks. (Rich, p. 48) |
| Turkish Sultan rejects Russian demands |
May 5, 1853 |
The Turks reject the Russian demands presented by Menshikov on 19 April. On the same day, Menshikov said that the Turkish decrees were insufficient and he presented the Turks with another ultimatum (Rich, p. 49). |
| Menshikov delivers ultimatum to Turkey |
May 5, 1853 |
Copies of two Turkish decrees were sent to Menshikov on 5 May, together with an official note from the sultan; these three documents constituted the Turkish rejection of the Russian demands presented by Menshikov on 19 April (Rich, p. 49). |
| Stratford promises British military assistance to Turkey |
May 9, 1853 |
Stratford informed the sultan that "in case of danger he was instructed to request the commander of H.M.'s forces in the Mediterranean to hold his squadron in readiness." Menshikov was aware of Turkish resistance stiffening (Rich, p. 50) |
| Turkey rejects Russian ultimatum |
May 10, 1853 |
Stratford had long talks with the leading Turkish ministers; he assured the sultan that H.M.'s forces in the Mediterranean were at Stratford's disposal. Thus encouraged, the Turks rejected Menshikov's ultimatum in a note of 10 May (Rich, p. 50). |
| Menshikov makes personal appeal to Reshid Pasha |
May 10, 1853 |
Menshikov appealed to Reshid Pasha, a Turkish statesman, even though he was hostile to Russia and had associations with Stratford. This was a |
| Menshikov visits the Turkish sultan |
May 13, 1853 |
Menshikov was falsely encouraged when the sultan promised a quick response to the Russian demands. The sultan played for time by shuffling his advisors and making Reshid foreign minister, who then explained the need for further delay (Rich, p. 52-3). |
| Menshikov and Stratford make separate visits to Reshid Pasha's house |
May 15, 1853 |
Menshikov had been led to expect an answer on the 15th, but Reshid explained that he had been opposed by the Grand Council. Menshikov demanded an immediate answer. Stratford then had a visit with Reshid, who again put off Menshikov (Rich, p. 53-4). |
| Turkish Grand Council rejects Russia's treaty proposal |
May 17, 1853 |
As Menshikov was finally dawning to the grim realities of the situation, the Turkish Grand Council voted 42 to 3 to reject the Russian treaty demands (Rich, p. 54). |
| Reshid informs Menshikov of the Turkish rejection of the Russian demands for a treaty |
May 18, 1853 |
Reshid paid a visit to Menshikov and with embarrasment tried to put the best face on the Grand Council's emphatic rejection of the Russian demands. A few minor concessions had been made but nothing significant (Rich, p. 54). |
| Menshikov presents Turks with a final proposal |
May 20, 1853 |
Stratford is surprised when his insincere request for another meeting is accepted by Menshikov. Although Menshikov made scaled down demands, the Turks, advised by Stratford, again rejected them (Rich, p. 55-6). |
| Menshikov mission leaves Constantinople |
May 21, 1853 |
With any hope of a treaty gone completely, Menshikov left Constantinople the next day (Rich, p. 57). |
| Nesselrode presents a final Russia ultimatum |
May 31, 1853 |
This ultimatum demanded that the Turks agree to the proposals of 20 May in eight days. If they did not, Russian troops would cross their borders and occupy the lands that the Russians had attempted in vain to obtain by peaceful means (Rich, p. 61-2). |
| Clarendon authorizes Canning to use British Fleet |
May 31, 1853 |
After the failure of the Menshikov mission, Clarendon took the lead in persuading the cabinet of the need for a dramatic gesture of support on behalf of the Turks, and on 2 June the British fleet at Malta was ordered to Besika Bay (Rich, p. 63-4). |
| British fleet leaves Malta bound for eastern Mediterranean |
June 2, 1853 |
After the British fleet was ordered to the Straits, the French fleet followed (Rich, p. 64). |
| Tsar Nicholas appeals to Emperor Napoleon III |
June 4, 1853 |
Basically, Nicholas told Napoleon III that if Russia was "forced" to occupy the principalities, he would not attack the Turks unless the they first attacked Russia. He also claimed to have no ambition towards Turkish territory (Rich, p. 68-9). |
| British and French fleets assemble in Besika Bay |
June 13/14, 1853 |
(Baumgart, p. 14) |
| Turks reject Russian final ultimatum of May 31, 1853 |
June 16, 1853 |
After the arrival of the French and British fleets at Besika Bay, the Turkish government at last replied in the negative to the Russian ultimatum of 31 May, but they tried said the tsar should not take it personally (Rich, p. 64-5). |
| Tsar Nicholas issues a manifesto announcing the imminent occupation of the principalities |
June 26, 1853 |
Tsar Nicholas issues a manifesto to the Russian people announcing the imminent occupation of the principalities and explaing Russia's reason for doing so (Rich, p. 71). |
| Russian troops cross Pruth River to invade Modavia and Wallachia |
July 2, 1853 |
After all ultimata had been disregarded, Russian troops crossed the Pruth on 2 July 1853 and occupied the Turkish Danubian Principalities to enforce the demands of the tsar (Baumgart, p. 14). |
| French ambassador Castelbajac presents a proposal for French mediation of the crisis |
July 8, 1853 |
French ambassador Castelbajac presents a proposal for French mediation of the crisis to the tsar. Nicholas likes the French proposal but is also trying to negotiate through Austria, and waits to see what happens with the Austrian proposal (Rich, p. 73). |
| Turkish Ultimatum is drafted |
July 17, 1853 |
Stratford and Reshid send to Russia:
1. Turkish note protesting occupation,
2. Letter from Reshid to Nesselrode,
3. Text of the latest Turkish government decrees on the non-Moslem subjects (including Orthodox Christians). |
| Buol convenes a conference in Vienna |
July 24, 1853 |
Buol convenes a conference in Vienna to work out a settlement to the Russo-Turkish dispute (Rich, p. 73-74). |
| Turkish Ultimatum is approved by Turkish Grand Council |
July 24, 1853 |
(Rich, p. 73) |
| Text of Vienna Note is adopted |
July 28, 1853 |
(Rich, p. 74) |
| Turkish Ultimatum reaches Vienna and is rejected by Buol |
July 29, 1853 |
Buol refuses to ackowledge it officially; the Vienna Note becomes the sole basis for negotiation (Rich, p. 73-74) |
| Egyptian fleet arrives in Constantinople |
August 12, 1853 |
The Turks received substantial material encouragement (?) with the arrival of an Egyptian fleet at Constantinople on 12 August (Rich, p. 76). |
| Vienna Note rejected by Turkish Grand Council |
August 20, 1853 |
The Turks rejected the Vienna Note on the basis that is conceded the principal of a Russian protectorate over the Orthodox church in the Ottoman Empire, thereby giving the Russia's undue influence in Turkish affairs. Buol was infuriated (Rich, p. 77). |
| Demonstrations in Constantinople for Jihad against Russia |
August 25 - September 5, 1853 |
Demonstrations in Constantinople give Turkish leaders a pretext for appeals to summon the Anglo-French fleets to Constantinople to protect the lives and property of the foreigners as well as the Turkish government itself (Rich, p. 82-3). |
| Nesselrode's Reply to the Turkish Rejection of the Vienna Note |
September 7, 1853 |
Nesselrode, in a dispatch to the respective attaches, asked Austria, France, Britain, and Prussia to put pressure on Russia to accept the Vienna Note without changes. This became known as the "Violent Interpretation" of the Vienna Note (Rich, p. 78-9). |
| Clarendon Interpretation of the Russian Interpretation of the Vienna Note |
September 16, 1853 |
Clarendon sees in the Russian interpretation of the Vienna Note a Russian claim to a de facto protectorate over the Ottoman Empire (Rich, p. 81).
The Russians were taken aback by the British reaction. |
| Napoleon III urges British and French fleets move to Constantinople |
September 19, 1853 |
Napoleon III, after riots in Constantinople demanding Holy War against Russia, proposed that the combined fleets be sent to Constantinople to exploit the situation (Rich, p. 83). |
| British and French fleets ordered to enter the Dardanelles |
September 23, 1853 |
Three days after Napoleon's proposal, Aberdeen and Clarendon acceded to the suggestion (Rich, p. 86). |
| Russia rejects Turkey's demands |
September 25, 1853 |
Formal notification of Russia's rejection for Turkey's demands for amendments to the Vienna Note was received in Constantinople on 25 September (Rich, p. 86). |
| Turkish Grand Council votes for war with Russia |
September 26, 1853 |
In response to the entry of the British and French fleets into the Dardanelles on September 23, the Turkish Grand Council voted for war with Russia; included in the declaration was an ultimatum calling for evacuation of the Principalities (Rich, p. 86). |
| Olmutz Mediation Proposal |
October 3, 1853 |
Almost a dead issue, this came just at the time of the Turkish Declaration of War |
| Turkey declares war on Russia |
October 4, 1853 |
Turkey's declaration of war on Russia begins the Crimean War. Encouragement came from the action of the British and French in bringing additional warships to Constantinople and from reports of pro-Turkish public opinion and governmental support in Britain, as well as Turkish popular feelings (Rich, p. 86-7). |
| British and French fleets enter the Straits |
October 14, 1853 |
(Rich, p, 92-3) |
| Nesselrode signals that mediatiation on the part of Austria was welcome |
October 17, 1853 |
Nesselrode signals that continued mediatiation on the part of Austria would be welcome. (Rich, p. 95) |
| Turkish government orders attacks on Russian positions |
October 18, 1853 |
The Turks received a reply to their ultimatum from the Russian commander in the principalities, so they assumed that they were now officially at war with Russia; this precipitate action gave the Turks the appearance of being the aggressors (Rich, p. 88). |
| Turkish army crosses the Danube River at Kalafat |
October 28, 1853 |
Turkish army crosses the Danube River at Kalafat, the border with Romania and Bulgaria. |
| Russia declares war on Turkey |
November 1, 1853 |
The tsar issues the Russian equivalent of a declaration of war with Turkey. (Rich, p. 88) |
| Oltenitza, Battle of |
November 4, 1853 |
[Turkish forces under] Omar defeated the Russians in southern Rumania, near the Danube (Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825; Harbottle, p. 208). |
| Austria declares a policy of 'armed neutrality' |
November 10, 1853 |
(Baumgart, p. 35) |
| Akhaltsikhe, Battle of |
November 14, 1853 |
Although outnumbered, [another] Russian army led by Prince Androniikov forced the Turks to flee again at Akhaltsike on 14 November, the victory being gained at the point of the bayonet, a tactic much favoured by Russian commanders (Royle, p. 93). |
| Ongulsi, Battle of |
November 19, 1853 |
It was followed five days later by a similar rout at Ongulsi where Bebatov's cavalry overran the Turkish camp and captured it's artillery (Royle, p. 93). |
| Sinope, Battle of |
November 30, 1853 |
Admiral Nakhimov, his ships using shell-firing guns, destroys the Turkish Flotilla at Sinope (Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825). This guarantees the entry of Britain and France into the war as allies on the part of the Turks. |
| Ostrolenka, Battle of |
November 30, 1853 |
(Harbottle, p. 211) |
| Louis Napoleon assumes the imperial title of Napoleon III |
December 2, 1853 |
On 2 December 1851, Louis Napoleon made himself dictator of France through a coup d'etat, and exactly two years later he himself assumed the imperial title of Napoleon III (Rich, p. 6). |
| Collective Note and Protocol forwarded to Constantinople |
December 5, 1853 |
The four neutral powers (France, Britain, Austria, Prussia) draft a Collective Note to the Porte (Rich, p. 95-6). The Collective Note was primarily a Turkish document and a statement of Turkish conditions (Rich, p. 100). |
| News of the Russian victory at Sinope reaches London by telegraph |
December 11, 1853 |
(Baumgart, p. 15) |
| Sweden and Denmark delare their neutrality |
December 20, 1853 |
(Baumgart, p. 43) |
| British government orders the British fleet to enter the Black Sea |
December 22, 1853 |
The British government orders the British fleet to enter the Black Sea (Rich, p. 98) |
| Sir James Graham (First Lord of the Admiralty) calls for destruction of Sevastopol |
December 24, 1853 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| British and French fleets enter Black Sea |
January 3, 1854 |
(Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825-6) |
| Chetaté, Battle of |
January 6-9, 1854 |
(Harbottle, p. 72) |
| Russia warns that warships in Black Sea must return to Sevastopol |
January 11, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Vienna Conference endorses the Constantinople Note over the Collective Note |
January 13, 1854 |
(Rich, p. 101) |
| Orlov Mission to Vienna |
January 21, 1854 |
The tsar sends Count Orlov to Vienna with two personal letters to Emperor Francis Joseph
1. A request for assurance of Austrian neutrality
2. A reply to both four-power Collective Notes, (December 5 and January 13) |
| Napoleon III's letter to the Tsar |
January 29, 1854 |
Napoleon proposed that Russia evacuate the Principalities, the Anglo-French fleet leave the Black Sea, and treaty negotiations then continue under auspices of the four neutral powers; mostly propaganda for the French public (Rich, p. 103-4). |
| Orlov counterproposals rejected |
February 2, 1854 |
Buol convenes another conference of the ambassadors of the four neutral powers; the conference rejects the Russian counterproposals made by the Orlov mission and declines to forward them to the Turkish government. (Rich, p. 102-3) |
| Russia breaks diplomatic relations with France and Britain |
February 6, 1854 |
Because French and British warships were carrying out de facto warfare against Russian shipping in the Black Sea, the tsar broke diplomatic relations with France and Britain (Rich, p. 104) |
| Tsar's Reply to Napoleon III's letter of January 29, 1854 |
February 9, 1854 |
Bland and noncommittal (Rich, p. 103-4) |
| Cabinet approves Lord Raglan's appontment as C-in-C, British Expeditionary Force |
February 13, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Calafat, Battle of |
February 14 - May, 1854 |
(Harbottle, p. 59) |
| First troops leave England |
February 22, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| British and French ultimata require Russia evacuate the two occupied provinces |
February 27, 1854 |
Russia must refrain from all military activity in its conflict with Turkey, announce the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities, and complete their withdrawal by April 15 (Rich, p. 104-5) |
| Prussia declares a state of 'sovereign neutrality' and declines to join the Western allies |
February 27, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 38) |
| Lord Clarendon decides Russia must be confronted |
March 1, 1854 |
Deciding that the security of Europe was at stake, Clarendon declares that the Russian Black Sea fleet, as well as the Russian base and naval arsenal at Sebastopol must be destroyed (Rich, p. 98-9). |
| Royal Navy's Baltic Fleet leaves Portsmouth |
March 11, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| French and British Ultimata are presented to Russian government in Saint Petersburg |
March 14, 1854 |
(Rich, p. 106) |
| Prussia prohibits the transit of arms through Prussian territory |
March 18, 1854 |
The Prussian king, under pressure from Western allies, issues a decree prohibiting the transit of arms through Prussian territory (Baumgart, p. 40). |
| Palmerston writes 'beau ideal' memorandum partioning Russia |
March 19, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 28; Rich, p. 108) |
| Russian Expedition to Bulgaria (Moldavia and Wallachia) |
March 20 - August 2, 1854 |
A strong Russian army under Marshal Ivan Paskievich invaded Bulgaria (Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825-6). |
| France begins diplomatic overtures to the King of Sweden |
March 25, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 43) |
| French troops leave for Turkey |
March 26, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Britain declares war on Russia |
March 27, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 14) |
| France declares war on Russia |
March 28, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 14) |
| Vanguard of British Expeditionary Force at Malta ordered to Gallipoli |
March 30, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| British troops arrive at Gallipoli; French already there |
April 8, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Lord Raglan leaves London |
April 10, 1854 |
***** |
| Britain and France sign treaty of alliance |
April 10, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7; Baumgart, p. 1?) |
| Silistria, Siege of |
April 14 - June 23, 1854 |
Russian forces laid siege to Silistria (Dobruja, April 14-June 26, broken off)?
to July? |
| Turkey formally joins the allies |
April 15, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| British frigate Furious fired on while trying to enter Odessa under a flag of truce |
April 16, 1854 |
(Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825-6) |
| Rahova, Battle of |
April 18, 1854 |
Turkish victory at Rahova |
| Austrian occupation of Romania |
April 20, 1854 |
Austrian occupies Romania and threatens intervention in Russo-Turkish War. Austrian forces continued to occupy Walachia and Moldavia after the end of the Crimean War, until March 1857. |
| U.S. Secretary of State informs Stoeckl that the U.S. wishes to remain neutral |
April 20, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 48) |
| Austria and Prussia conclude a "defensive/offensive" treaty |
April 20, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 17, 57) |
| Odessa, Bombardment of |
April 22, 1854 |
(Royle, p. 150; Sweetman, p. 7; Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825-6) |
| Raglan reaches Constantinople |
April 29, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| French troops under St. Arnaud land at Gallipoli |
May 7, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| HMS Tiger, Capture of |
May 12, 1854 |
(Royle, p. 150-1) |
| Britain, France, Austria and Prussia guarantee Turkish independence |
May 23, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Bamberg Meeting |
May 25-30, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 57) |
| French troops sail for Varna |
May 25, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| British troops sail for Varna |
May 29, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Prussian King prohibits the transit of ammunition and raw materials through Prussian territory |
June 1, 1854 |
Prussian King, under pressure from Western allies, issues a decree prohibiting the transit of ammunition and raw materials through Prussian territory (Baumgart, p. 41). |
| Austrian ultimatum to Russia demands evacuation of Danubian principalities |
June 3, 1854 |
The ultimatum demanded that Russia halt all military operations south of the Danube and fix an early date for the evacuation of the principalities. The tsar was shocked, having heretofore counted on the friendly neutrality of Austria (Rich, p. 120-1). |
| Arab-tabia, Destruction of |
June 7, 1854 |
Gorchakov moved ahead with his plans. Arab-tabia, the Turkish fort before Silistria, was successfully mined on June 7 and most of its defenses were destroyed (Curtiss, p. 264). |
| Technitz, Battle of |
June 9, 1854 |
Hungarian General Kmety repulses the attack of a strong body of Russians on Technitz. |
| Austria and Turkey conclude Boyadji-Köi Convention |
June 14, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 18) |
| Bomarsund, Bombardment of |
June 21, 1854 |
Captain Hall of the steam frigate Hecla bombarded the fortess of Bomarsund to little effect (Royle, p. 159). |
| British naval squadron blockades the White Sea |
June 22, 1854 |
British naval squadron blockades the White Sea |
| Siege of Silistra raised |
June 23, 1854 |
|
| Russians evacuate Moldavia and Wallachia |
July 2, 1854 |
Russians recross the Pruth river, vacating Moldavia and Wallachia (Sweetman, p. 7) |
| Giurgevo, Battles of |
July 3 - 10, 1854 |
Russians defeated at Giurgevo |
| Greytown, Bombardment of |
July 13, 1854 |
Captain George Hollins bombards Greytown, Mosquito Coast |
| Raglan receives Cabinet dispatch requiring invasion of the Crimea |
July 16, 1854 |
Raglan receives Cabinet dispatch requiring invasion of the Crimea |
| Allied Council of War to discuss invasion |
July 18, 1854 |
Allied Council of War to discuss invasion |
| Mouth of Katcha River chosen as landing area |
July 21, 1854 |
Mouth of Katcha River chosen as landing area |
| U.S. and Russia sign a convention on the right of neutrals at sea |
July 22, 1854 |
|
| Bayazid, Battle of |
July 29, 1854 |
|
| Russians declare their intention to evacuate the Danubian Principalities |
August 7, 1854 |
|
| Vienna Four Points accepted |
August 8, 1854 |
The Four Points were officially recognized as the Allied conditions for the restoration of peace (Rich, p. 142). England, France, Prussia and Austria insist that Russia not interfere in the Ottoman Empire (Baumgart, p. 17). |
| Bomarsund, Bombardment of |
August 8-16, 1854 |
On the 8th, the fortress was cut off and French troops began landing. On the 14th and 15th, two outposts surrendered and the French fleet completed the investment of the fort. After a heavy bombarment, the fort surrenders (Baumgart, p. 171-2). |
| Fire delays embarkation of Crimean Expedition |
August 10, 1854 |
Serious fire in Varna delays [embarkation for] invasion; cholera also prevalent (Sweetman, p. 7). |
| Bomarsund, Occupation of |
August 16, 1854 |
The Allies destroy and occupy Fortress of Bomarsund on Åland Islands (Baumgart, p. 44) |
| Embarkation commences; bad weather further disrupts timetable |
August 24, 1854 |
Embarkation commences; bad weather further disrupts timetable (Sweetman, p. 7). |
| Petropavlovsk, Battle of |
August 29, 1854 |
A Franco-British flotilla of six ships arrived at Petropavlovsk. Marines were landed, but the Expedition commander shot himself for unknown reasons, the flotilla then shelled the force it had just landed. The operation was then called off (Royle, p. 165). |
| Raglan reaches Balchick Bay; French commander (Saint Arnaud) already gone |
September 5, 1854 |
Raglan reaches Balchick Bay; French commander (Saint Arnaud) already gone (Sweetman, p. 7). |
| Crimean Expedition departs |
September 7, 1854 |
The allied force was transported to the Crimean Peninsula in a convoy of 150 warships and transports. Typical of the haphazard conduct of campaign was the fact that not until the convoy lay offshore was any decision made as to a destination (D). |
| Raglan carries out another reconnaissance of Crimean coast; chooses Calamita Bay for landings |
September 9, 1854 |
Raglan carries out another reconnaissance of Crimean coast; chooses Calamita Bay for landings (Sweetman, p. 7). |
| Eupatoria surrenders |
September 13, 1854 |
Eupatoria surrenders (Sweetman, p. 7). |
| Calamita Bay, Allied troops land at |
September 14-18, 1854 |
After a leisurely cruise, the armada arrives at Eupatoria. The troops disembarked in fine weather without sign of the enemy. The disembarkation of the French troops took only two days, that of the British took double that time (Baumgart, p. 116). |
| Calamita Bay, Allied troops complete landing at |
September 18, 1854 |
After a leisurely cruise, the armada arrives at Eupatoria. The troops disembarked in fine weather without sign of the enemy. The disembarkation of the French troops took only two days, that of the British took double that time (Baumgart, p. 116). |
| Bulganek River, Battle of |
September 19, 1854 |
A short skirmish with mainly cavalry forces involved. The Russian Cossack Cavalry tried to lure the British into an ambush, but British commander Raglan would not let his forces be drawn in it (). |
| Alma, Battle of the |
September 20, 1854 |
Although suffering with dysentery and cholera, the British forces made a frontal assault on the Russian positions at Alma. The Russian position was a strong one atop a ridge, but the allies, by their fleet, took the ridge (Wikipedia). |
| Southward advance resumes; Russian warships sunk in Sevastopol Harbor |
September 23, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Canrobert succeeds Saint Arnaud as French Commander-in-Chief |
September 25, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Sebastopol, Siege of |
September 27, 1854 - September 9, 1855 |
(Harbottle, p. 255 ) |
| Saint Arnaud dies of cholera at sea |
September 29, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| British naval brigade lands |
October 2, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Patriotic Fund founded |
October 13, 1854 |
Patriotic Fund founded for wives and orphans of servicemen lost in the Crimea (Sweetman, p. 8). |
| Sebastopol, First Allied bombardment of |
October 17, 1854 |
First bombardment of Sevastopol (and beginning of the siege of Sevastopol) |
| Kalafat, Skirmish at |
October 23, 1854 |
***** |
| Saint Nicholas, Capture of |
October 23-24, 1854 |
***** |
| Balaklava, Battle of |
October 25, 1854 |
***** |
| Little Inkerman, Battle of |
October 26, 1854 |
Russian attack of 'Little Inkerman' |
| Florence Nightingale reaches Scutari |
November 4, 1854 |
(Rich, p. 130; Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Inkerman, Battle of |
November 5, 1854 |
***** |
| Allied Council of War decides to continue siege |
November 6, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Great storm damages French and British fleets |
November 14, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 8) |
| Austria and Turkey conclude a treaty of alliance |
December 2, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 18) |
| British Parliament passes the Foreign Enlistment, aimed at recruiting foreign mercenaries |
December 23, 1854 |
***** |
| Buol persuades Russia to attend Peace talks to begin in Vienna |
December 28, 1854 |
(Baumgart, p. 18) |
| Sardinia joins Allies |
January 2, 1855 |
***** |
| Omar Pasha lands in the Crimea with Turkish reinforcements |
January 5, 1855 |
Omar Pasha lands in the Crimea with Turkish reinforcements |
| Tulchea, Battle of |
January 7, 1855 |
***** |
| Piedmont-Sardinia joins the Anglo-French alliance |
January 10, 1855 |
The northern Italian state of Piedmont-Sardinia joined the Anglo-French alliance on 10 January 1855 (Rich, p. 147-8). |
| Balaclava, Feint Attack on |
January 10, 1855 |
Russian feint attack on Balaclava |
| Anglo-French council of war at Paris |
January 10-20, 1855 |
Baumgart, p.83 |
| Russians accept Austrian Ultimatum |
January 16, 1855 |
Baumgart, p.83 |
| Lord Aberdeen and his government resigns |
January 25, 1855 |
J.A. Roebuck's resolution, critical of the conduct of the war, leads to resignation of Lord Aberdeen's government (Rich, p 148). |
| Sardinian Contingent arrives to aid in Siege of Sebastopol |
January 26, 1855 |
The Sardinian contingent arrives |
| Piedmont-Sardinia concludes a military convention with Britain and France |
January 26, 1855 |
On 26 January concluded a military convention with Britain and France to supply 15,000 men for the war in return for a monetary indemnity and a guarantee of Sardinia's territorial integrity for the duration of the war (Rich, p. 147-8). |
| Lord Palmerston becomes Prime Minister |
February 5, 1855 |
British government of Palmerston forms (Sweetman, p. 8). |
| Eupatoria, Battle of |
February 17, 1855 |
***** |
| Chernaya River, Battle of |
February 20, 1855 |
Allied attack across the Chernaya frustrated by snow storms |
| White Works, French assault on |
February 24, 1855 |
French attack on 'White Works' defeated |
| More Russian ships sunk in Sevastopol Harbor |
February 24, 1855 |
***** |
| Aleksandr II Romanov becomes Tsar of Russia |
March 2, 1855 |
Nicholas I dies; Aleksandr II Romanov becomes Tsar of Russia |
| Sevastopol Select Committee commences work |
March 5, 1855 |
***** |
| Prussian King issues a third decree forbidding export of military goods to Russia |
March 8, 1855 |
***** |
| Railway between Sebastopol Heights and Balaclava Harbor is completed |
March 26, 1855 |
"'A line of railroad between Balaklava and the heights above Sebastopol' which could be used to bring up siege equipment and remove the wounded" enters service. Thus, "the British Army had developed the first hospital train." (Royle, p. 257) |
| Vienna Peace Conference |
March 15 - June 4, 1855 |
The conference failed and was probably doomed to fail from the start, because both Napoleon and Palmerston believed they could not afford to make peace without having gained substantial military successes (Rich, p. 149). |
| Baltic Expedition, Second |
April 4, 1855 |
Second Baltic expedition leaves Spithead |
| Sebastopol, Second Bombardment of |
April 8-16, 1855 |
Second Bombardment of Sebastopol (Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 828) |
| Quarantine Cemetery, Battle of |
May 1, 1855 |
Fierce fighting on the French left, at the Quarantine Cemetery |
| Kerch Expedition sails for Kertch and is recalled by Canrobert |
May 2, 1855 |
First expedition sails for Kertch and is recalled by Canrobert. |
| Canrobert resigns command of French army and is succeeded by Pelissier |
May 16, 1855 |
Canrobert resigns command of French army and is succeeded by Pelissier |
| Expedition to Kertch sails again |
May 23, 1855 |
***** |
| Kerch, Battle of |
May 24, 1855 |
***** |
| Kertch and Yenikale, Capture of |
May 25, 1855 |
Kertch and Yenikale were captured in an attempt to open up the Sea of Azov to the Allied fleets and thereby cut Russian supply lines. The victory was never followed up on due to Simpson, who objected to diversions from the siege (Rich, p. 135). |
| Walker's Invasion of Nicaragua |
June 1, 1855 |
***** |
| Granada, Occupation of |
June, 1855 |
Captain William Walker lands on the Mosquito Coast and occupies (island of) Granada; Colonel Henry Kinney proclaims himself Governor |
| Peace talks in Vienna end without success |
June 4, 1855 |
***** |
| Sebastopol, Third Bombardment of |
June 6, 1855 |
Third Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Sebastopol, Assault on Outer Defenses of |
June 7, 1855 |
***** |
| White Works, Mamelon and Quarries captured |
June 8-9, 1855 |
Capture of the 'White Works', the Mamelon and The Quarries by the Allies |
| White Sea blockade resumes |
June 11, 1855 |
***** |
| French troops leave Kertch |
June 13, 1855 |
***** |
| British troops leave Kertch |
June 14, 1855 |
British troops leave Kertch; a Turkish garrison remains |
| Kars, Siege of |
June 16 - November 26, 1855 |
***** |
| Kars, First Battle of |
June 16, 1855 |
First Russian attack at Kars; Beginning of Siege of Kars |
| Sebastopol, Fourth Bombardment of |
June 17, 1855 |
Fourth Bombardment of Sebastopol; 2000+ killed |
| Malakoff/Redan, First Assault on |
June 17-18, 1855 |
Main assault on the Malakov and Redan defeated with heavy loss |
| Death of Lord Raglan; Sir James Simpson becomes commander of British forces |
June 28, 1855 |
***** |
| Kars, Second Battle of |
August 7, 1855 |
Second Russian attack at Kars |
| Sveaborg, Bombardment of |
August 9, 1855 |
Bombardment of Sveaborg |
| Traktir Bridge, Battle of the |
August 16, 1855 |
Piedmont aids British in defeat of Russia |
| Sebastopol, Fifth Bombardment of |
August 17, 1855 |
Fifth Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Sebastopol, Sixth Bombardment of |
September 5, 1855 |
Sixth Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Omar Pasha leaves Crimea |
September 6, 1855 |
***** |
| Malakoff/Redan, Second Assault on |
September 8, 1855 |
Attack on Malakov by French is successful, though French fail at Little Redan and Bastion du Mat; British fail at the Redan. |
| Russians evacuate Sevastopol |
September 8/9, 1855 |
***** |
| Sebastapol, Capture of |
September 9-11, 1855 |
Russians evacuated the city on the ninth, but left it in flames. It was only safe to occupy on the 11th. |
| Buol's late September peace initiative |
September 22, 1855 |
(Rich, p. 164-5) |
| Palmerston originates 'circumvallation' letter |
September 25, 1855 |
***** |
| Eupatoria, Battle of |
September 29, 1855 |
***** |
| Kars, Third Battle of |
September 29, 1855 |
Russian attack at Kars defeated |
| Kinburn Expedition sails |
October 7, 1855 |
Kinburn expedition |
| Kinburn, Bombardment of |
October 16, 1855 |
***** |
| Kinburn, Capture of |
October 17, 1855 |
Allied expedition captures Kinburn, Ochakov evacuated |
| France accepts Buol's Proposal for peace |
October 17, 1855 |
(Rich, p. 165) |
| Ingur River, Battle of |
November 6/7, 1855 |
Omar Pasha defeats Russians on River Ingur |
| Sir William Codrington succeeds Simpson as British C-in-C |
November 11, 1855 |
***** |
| Buol-Bourqueney Agreement drafted |
November 14, 1855 |
In this memo, the original Four Points were restated, but with significant revisions and added demands. A fifth point was a wild card saying that the belligerents could add special conditions that might be in the European interest (Rich, p. 169-70). |
| Explosion in French lines |
November 15, 1855 |
Ammunition explosion in French lines |
| Buol-Bourqueney Agreement approved by France |
November 18, 1855 |
Since it was produced by the French negotiation efforts, there was never a question of its approval by the French government. It was sent to Britain with a request for its quick approval (Rich, p. 170). |
| Buol-Bourqueney Agreement approved by Britain |
November 20, 1855 |
The British cabinet overrode the objections of Palmerston, and approved the Buol-Bourqueney Agreement. This was a defeat for Palmerston and Clarendon, who were working to sabotage any agreement and wanted to continue the war (Rich, p. 171-2) |
| Swedish Treaty with the Western Powers |
November 21, 1855 |
Western allies conclude a treaty of alliance with Sweden (Baumgart, p. 46) According to a secret memorandum of this treaty, Sweden was to provide an army of 165,000 men to drive the Russians out of Finland (Baumgart, p. 85). |
| Kars, Fall of |
November 26, 1855 |
Russians storm the Turkish fortress of Kars |
| Austrian Ultimatum drafted |
December 16, 1855 |
Based on the Vienna Four points, minus the British special conditions, was drafted in Vienna and on the same Day, Count Esterhazy left for Saint Petersburg with it (Rich, p 175). |
| Russia informed of Sweden's treaty of alliance with Western powers |
December 17, 1855 |
Sweden tipped the military balance heavily in favor of the western allies, and was likely the reason for the eventual Russian submission to the Austrian Ultimatum (Rich, p. 177). |
| Austrian Ultimatum delivered to Russian government |
December 28, 1855 |
(Rich, p. 175-6) |
| King Oscar of Sweden proposes to Western allies an offensive alliance against Russia |
January 12, 1856 |
***** |
| Russia accepts the Austrian Ultimatum |
January 16, 1856 |
***** |
| Last major Russian bombardment |
January 29, 1856 |
Russian guns in Sevastopol's northern suburb let loose a vast cannonade against the Karabel [Karabelnaya, a suburb of Sevastopol]. (Sweetman, pp. 8, 86) |
| Protocols on the preliminaries for peace signed in Vienna |
February 1, 1856 |
(Rich, p. 181) |
| French demolish Fort Nicholas |
February 4, 1856 |
The French blew up Fort Nicholas and the British destroyed the quays in Sevastopol. (Sweetman, p. 86; Palmer, p. 333) |
| Turkish decree on the rights of Christians in the Holy Places |
February 18, 1856 |
(Rich, p. 195) |
| First confidential meeting of the plenipotentiaries of Austria, Britain, and France |
February 21, 1856 |
The first of the confidential meetings of the plenipotentiaries of Austria, Britain, and France took place on 21 February, four days before the congress officially convened (Rich, p. 186). |
| Paris Peace Conference begins |
February 25, 1856 |
(Rich, p. 181) |
| Armistice signed in Paris |
February 28, 1856 |
Armistice signed in Paris |
| Hostilities in Russo-Turkish (Crimean) War cease |
February 29, 1856 |
***** |
| Treaty of Paris signed |
March 30, 1856 |
***** |
| Straits Convention signed |
March 30, 1856 |
Reaffirming the prosivions of the Straits Convention of 1841, it contained provisions for the passage of light naval vessels under certain conditions, namely the approval of the sultan (Rich, p. 192-3). |
| France, Britain and Austria sign a defensive alliance against Russia |
April 15, 1856 |
France, Britain and Austria sign a treaty, in effective, an alliance against Russia. They promised to guarantee the independence and territory of the Turks, and any infraction of the terms of the Treaty of Paris would be reason for war (Rich, p. 197-8). |
| Russian Republic Chancellor Earl von Nesselrode resigns |
April 18, 1856 |
***** |
| Treaty of Paris ratified |
April 27, 1856 |
***** |
| Last British troops leave Crimea |
July 12, 1856 |
Last British troops leave Crimea |
| Austria withdraws its troops from the Danubian Principalities |
March 1857 |
Austria's neutrality alienated both sides. Austria was isolated and could not deal with the problems of Sardinia and France in Italy, prevent the establishment of an Italian state, or deal with the rising influence and power of Prussia (Rich, p. 198). |
References
Baumgart, Winfried, The Crimean War, 1853-1856, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 244 p.
Dupuy, R. Ernest, and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the present, (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 1464 p.
Edgerton, Robert B., Death or Glory: The Legacy of the Crimean War, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), 288 p.
Fletcher, Ian, and Natalia Ishchenko, The Crimean War: A Clash of Empires, (Staplehurst, England: Spellmount Limited, 2004), 557 p.
Rich, Norman. Why the Crimean War? A Cautionary Tale. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. Pp. xix, 258.
Royle, Trevor, Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854-1856, (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2000), 564 p.
Warner, Philip, The Crimean War: A Reappraisal (Wordsword Editions Ltd.: Hertfordshire, England, 1972), 216 p.
|
|
Baumgart, Winfried, The Crimean War, 1853-1856, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 244 p.
|
|
Not only is it first on the list alphabetically, this book is the first one to read to get an overview of the Crimean War. The author is Professor of History at the University of Mainz (p. i), and editor of a 12-volume project on the documents of the Crimean War. Besides which, he is considered one of the world's leading experts on the Crimean War.
Baumgart's intention is to give an overview of the war, and to “strike the balance of almost 150 years of research on it.” He wants to put the war into perspective in relation to the “Eastern Question,” the most important and complicated issue of that era. The war was not fought entirely on the battlefield, but diplomatically as well, and a chapter is devoted to the diplomatic front of the struggle. All of the belligerents had their own individual ambitions in the war, as did the secondary powers. The discussion is limited to those nearest the conflict and those with the most military potential, specifically Sweden, Greece, the German states, Spain, and the United States.
The author also specifically states two other goals. The first goal is to give adequate treatment to all of the minor theaters of war usually ignored by other authors. The second is to avoid a specific viewpoint, a problem which is typical of most literature on the Crimean War. (pp. x-xi)
The author states that the Crimean War “bore the germs of a world war,” and then asks the obvious question why it did not evolve into one. (p. ix-x) He believes that it must be viewed as an unfought first world war and that it led directly to World War I. (p. x) The question about why the First World War started should be recast and instead the real question is why it did not happen sooner.
The third section of the second part of the book describing the neutral countries is one of the more interesting parts of the book because here (as well as later in the book) Baumgart discusses his feeling that the Crimean War had the potential of becoming a world war. The most interesting fact he mentions here is that America might have entered the war on the side of Russia, largely due to residual hostility in the U.S. against Britain over the War of 1812. (pp. 47-51) This is a subject hardly mentioned elsewhere. While it may seem unlikely, Baumgart stresses that this was not outside the realm of possibility.
In the first part of the book, Professor Baumgart discusses the origins of the war and diplomacy before its beginning. This includes the Eastern Question, which the author feels is the real cause of the war. The general ill-will between the two leaders, including the tsar's slight to Napoleon, calling him “Cher ami” instead of “Mon frere” is mentioned. (p. 12) This apparently unimportant difference was to be an important factor in the failure to avoid the war through negotiation. (p. 12)
Baumgart has not ignored the critical minor theaters of the war, which is a failing of many authors on the subject. True, the action in the Baltic, Danube and Caucasus theaters was rather unspectacular and of lesser importance compared to the campaign in the Crimean peninsula. But these theaters are crucial to understand the impact of the war as a whole, especially as it affected Austria and Prussia, Sweden, and Greece. The fighting in the Caucasus and Danube is vital to understand the series of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Turks. The Baltic campaign was important because it threatened to drag even peripheral powers such as Sweden into the war. The few actions in the Pacific, while relatively unimportant, also need to be mentioned, if only in passing. Again, according to Baumgart, the fact that the military actions of the war were so widespread points to the fact that it had the potential to become a world war. (p. 185) There was an “invasion scare” even on the distant continent of Australia. (p. ix) The reason it didn't become a wider war, says the author, is that the force of diplomacy functioning through the so-called “Concert of Europe” prevented that progression. (p. 10) The fact that several major powers (Austria, Prussia, and Sweden) were about to enter the war against Russia, giving the allies a huge numerical advantage, was a factor as well. (p. 10)
|
|
Edgerton, Robert B., Death or Glory: The Legacy of the Crimean War, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), 288 p.
|
|
|
This is an excellent analytical work on the Crimean War.
|
|
Fletcher, Ian, and Natalia Ishchenko, The Crimean War: A Clash of Empires, (Staplehurst, England: Spellmount Limited, 2004), 557 p.
|
|
|
This is one of the better accounts of the Crimean War. It is a detailed analytical book with a better insight into the Russian point of view than most other works.
|
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Palmer, Alan, The Crimean War, (New York: Dorset Press, 1992), 289 p.
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|
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This is an outstanding and detailed chronological narrative of the Crimean War.
|
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Rich, Norman, Why the Crimean War? A Cautionary Tale, (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991), 258 p.
|
|
Rich's book is an account of the diplomatic maneuvering that went on before the Crimean War, to prevent its start, and of the diplomatic efforts during the war to bring it to an end.
The author goes on to describe the diplomatic efforts that took place before the war, purportedly in an effort to prevent it. The diplomatic maneuverings continued through a series of proposals and counter-proposals, demands and ultimatums, which, on the surface were designed to prevent the outbreak of war, yet seemed to make it inevitable, largely because there were certain people who, not only “did not want them to succeed” (Rich, p. 5), but actually worked to prevent their success. (Rich, pp. 70-2, 182-3)
|
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Royle, Trevor, Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854-1856, (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2000), 564 p.
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|
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Explanation
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Sweetman, John, The Crimean War, (Sterling Heights, MI: Osprey Publishing, 2001), 95 p.
|
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This book has an excellent collection of modern maps and illustrations and photographs from the Crimean War era. The text is adequate but a bit sketchy on some areas. It tells the story from the Allied point-of-view
|
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Warner, Philip, The Crimean War: A Reappraisal (Wordsword Editions Ltd.: Hertfordshire, England, 1972), 216 p.
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This is an excellent analytical account of the war entirely from the British point of view. It describes what effect the war had on British politics and popular opinion as well as relating the story of the war and its ramifications for the British military.
|
| Oltenitza, Battle of |
November 4, 1853 |
[Turkish forces under] Omar defeated the Russians in southern Rumania, near the Danube (Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825; Harbottle, p. 208). |
| Akhaltsikhe, Battle of |
November 14, 1853 |
Although outnumbered, [another] Russian army led by Prince Androniikov forced the Turks to flee again at Akhaltsike on 14 November, the victory being gained at the point of the bayonet, a tactic much favoured by Russian commanders (Royle, p. 93). |
| Ongulsi, Battle of |
November 19, 1853 |
It was followed five days later by a similar rout at Ongulsi where Bebatov's cavalry overran the Turkish camp and captured it's artillery (Royle, p. 93). |
| Ostrolenka, Battle of |
November 30, 1853 |
(Harbottle, p. 211) |
| Sinope, Battle of |
November 30, 1853 |
Admiral Nakhimov, his ships using shell-firing guns, destroys the Turkish Flotilla at Sinope (Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825). This guarantees the entry of Britain and France into the war as allies on the part of the Turks. |
| Chetaté, Battle of |
January 6-9, 1854 |
(Harbottle, p. 72) |
| Calafat, Battle of |
February 14 - May, 1854 |
(Harbottle, p. 59) |
| Britain and France sign treaty of alliance |
April 10, 1854 |
(Sweetman, p. 7; Baumgart, p. 1?) |
| Silistria, Siege of |
April 14 - June 23, 1854 |
Russian forces laid siege to Silistria (Dobruja, April 14-June 26, broken off)?
to July? |
| Rahova, Battle of |
April 18, 1854 |
Turkish victory at Rahova |
| Odessa, Bombardment of |
April 22, 1854 |
(Royle, p. 150; Sweetman, p. 7; Dupuy and Dupuy, 1977, p. 825-6) |
| Technitz, Battle of |
June 9, 1854 |
Hungarian General Kmety repulses the attack of a strong body of Russians on Technitz. |
| Bomarsund, Bombardment of |
June 21, 1854 |
Captain Hall of the steam frigate Hecla bombarded the fortess of Bomarsund to little effect (Royle, p. 159). |
| Greytown, Bombardment of |
July 13, 1854 |
Captain George Hollins bombards Greytown, Mosquito Coast |
| Bayazid, Battle of |
July 29, 1854 |
|
| Bomarsund, Bombardment of |
August 8-16, 1854 |
On the 8th, the fortress was cut off and French troops began landing. On the 14th and 15th, two outposts surrendered and the French fleet completed the investment of the fort. After a heavy bombarment, the fort surrenders (Baumgart, p. 171-2). |
| Bomarsund, Occupation of |
August 16, 1854 |
The Allies destroy and occupy Fortress of Bomarsund on Åland Islands (Baumgart, p. 44) |
| Petropavlovsk, Battle of |
August 29, 1854 |
A Franco-British flotilla of six ships arrived at Petropavlovsk. Marines were landed, but the Expedition commander shot himself for unknown reasons, the flotilla then shelled the force it had just landed. The operation was then called off (Royle, p. 165). |
| Bulganek River, Battle of |
September 19, 1854 |
A short skirmish with mainly cavalry forces involved. The Russian Cossack Cavalry tried to lure the British into an ambush, but British commander Raglan would not let his forces be drawn in it (). |
| Alma, Battle of the |
September 20, 1854 |
Although suffering with dysentery and cholera, the British forces made a frontal assault on the Russian positions at Alma. The Russian position was a strong one atop a ridge, but the allies, by their fleet, took the ridge (Wikipedia). |
| Sebastopol, Siege of |
September 27, 1854 - September 9, 1855 |
(Harbottle, p. 255 ) |
| Sebastopol, First Allied bombardment of |
October 17, 1854 |
First bombardment of Sevastopol (and beginning of the siege of Sevastopol) |
| Balaklava, Battle of |
October 25, 1854 |
***** |
| Little Inkerman, Battle of |
October 26, 1854 |
Russian attack of 'Little Inkerman' |
| Inkerman, Battle of |
November 5, 1854 |
***** |
| Tulchea, Battle of |
January 7, 1855 |
***** |
| Balaclava, Feint Attack on |
January 10, 1855 |
Russian feint attack on Balaclava |
| Eupatoria, Battle of |
February 17, 1855 |
***** |
| Chernaya River, Battle of |
February 20, 1855 |
Allied attack across the Chernaya frustrated by snow storms |
| White Works, French assault on |
February 24, 1855 |
French attack on 'White Works' defeated |
| Sebastopol, Second Bombardment of |
April 8-16, 1855 |
Second Bombardment of Sebastopol (Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 828) |
| Quarantine Cemetery, Battle of |
May 1, 1855 |
Fierce fighting on the French left, at the Quarantine Cemetery |
| Kerch, Battle of |
May 24, 1855 |
***** |
| Granada, Occupation of |
June, 1855 |
Captain William Walker lands on the Mosquito Coast and occupies (island of) Granada; Colonel Henry Kinney proclaims himself Governor |
| Sebastopol, Third Bombardment of |
June 6, 1855 |
Third Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Sebastopol, Assault on Outer Defenses of |
June 7, 1855 |
***** |
| White Works, Mamelon and Quarries captured |
June 8-9, 1855 |
Capture of the 'White Works', the Mamelon and The Quarries by the Allies |
| Kars, First Battle of |
June 16, 1855 |
First Russian attack at Kars; Beginning of Siege of Kars |
| Kars, Siege of |
June 16 - November 26, 1855 |
***** |
| Sebastopol, Fourth Bombardment of |
June 17, 1855 |
Fourth Bombardment of Sebastopol; 2000+ killed |
| Malakoff/Redan, First Assault on |
June 17-18, 1855 |
Main assault on the Malakov and Redan defeated with heavy loss |
| Kars, Second Battle of |
August 7, 1855 |
Second Russian attack at Kars |
| Sveaborg, Bombardment of |
August 9, 1855 |
Bombardment of Sveaborg |
| Traktir Bridge, Battle of the |
August 16, 1855 |
Piedmont aids British in defeat of Russia |
| Sebastopol, Fifth Bombardment of |
August 17, 1855 |
Fifth Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Sebastopol, Sixth Bombardment of |
September 5, 1855 |
Sixth Bombardment of Sebastopol |
| Malakoff/Redan, Second Assault on |
September 8, 1855 |
Attack on Malakov by French is successful, though French fail at Little Redan and Bastion du Mat; British fail at the Redan. |
| Russians evacuate Sevastopol |
September 8/9, 1855 |
***** |
| Eupatoria, Battle of |
September 29, 1855 |
***** |
| Kars, Third Battle of |
September 29, 1855 |
Russian attack at Kars defeated |
| Kinburn, Bombardment of |
October 16, 1855 |
***** |
| Ingur River, Battle of |
November 6/7, 1855 |
Omar Pasha defeats Russians on River Ingur |
| Swedish Treaty with the Western Powers |
November 21, 1855 |
Western allies conclude a treaty of alliance with Sweden (Baumgart, p. 46) According to a secret memorandum of this treaty, Sweden was to provide an army of 165,000 men to drive the Russians out of Finland (Baumgart, p. 85). |
| Kars, Fall of |
November 26, 1855 |
Russians storm the Turkish fortress of Kars |
| Last major Russian bombardment |
January 29, 1856 |
Russian guns in Sevastopol's northern suburb let loose a vast cannonade against the Karabel [Karabelnaya, a suburb of Sevastopol]. (Sweetman, pp. 8, 86) |
| French demolish Fort Nicholas |
February 4, 1856 |
The French blew up Fort Nicholas and the British destroyed the quays in Sevastopol. (Sweetman, p. 86; Palmer, p. 333) |
| Treaty of Paris signed |
March 30, 1856 |
***** |
| Treaty of Paris ratified |
April 27, 1856 |
***** |
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